By Tim Lambert
The Persian Empire
The Persian Empire was created by Cyrus II, known as Cyrus the Great (559-529 BC). Cyrus first defeated another Iranian people called the Medes. In 547 he defeated the kingdom of Lydia (in what is now Turkey) at the battle of Pterya and became the ruler of most of Asia Minor. Soon afterward Cyrus also defeated the Greek cities on the Turkish coast. (These had been founded by the Greeks as colonies many years before).
However, Cyrus adopted a policy allowing conquered areas autonomy provided they paid their taxes. The Persians were also tolerant of local religions. Later Persian rulers also followed this policy. Under Darius, the Persian Empire was divided into areas called satrapies and each was ruled by a man called a satrap.
In 539 BC the Persians conquered the city-state of Babylon. The king of Babylon had ruled Syria and Phoenicia (modern-day Lebanon) and these were now added to the Persian Empire.
Cyrus was followed by Cambyses II (529-522 BC). In 525 BC he conquered Egypt. He died in 522 BC and was replaced by Darius.
Darius had to deal with rebellions in his empire and fought wars with Greece. In 499 BC the Greek cities on the coast of Turkey rebelled. Darius quickly crushed the revolt but in 490 BC he decided to invade Greece to punish the Greeks for assisting the rebels. However, the Athenians defeated the Persians at the Battle of Marathon.
In 480 BC another Persian ruler, Xerxes, invaded Greece. This time the Persians captured Athens and burned the Acropolis. However, their fleet was crushed at a naval battle at Salamis. In 479 BC the Greeks won a decisive battle at Plataea, which assured Greek independence. Xerxes was assassinated in 465 BC.
However, the Persian Empire declined after 400 BC. The size of the empire made it difficult to control. The empire suffered a series of rebellions and political instability. A ruler named Artaxerxes III was assassinated in 338 BC. Alexander the Great destroyed the Persian Empire in 331 BC.
The Parthian and Sassanid Empires
When Alexander died in 323 BC his empire was divided between his generals. However another great empire, the Parthian Empire was founded in 247 BC. Like the Persian Empire, the Parthian Empire was decentralized. It was prosperous because it controlled trade routes between East and West.
However, Parthia faced a threat from Rome. The Romans invaded the Parthian Empire in 53 BC but were routed at the Battle of Carrhae. In 115 AD the Romans invaded Parthian territory again, under Emperor Trajan and this time captured parts of what is now Iraq. However, the Romans could not hold the captured territory and after Trajan died in 117 AD they withdrew. The Parthians and the Romans then fought a series of wars.
In 224 AD a man named Ardashir rebelled against the Parthian rulers and succeeded in overthrowing them. A new dynasty called the Sassanids then ruled an empire.
Unlike the previous empires, the Sassanid Empire was centralized. The arts flourished at that time. However, intermittent wars with Rome continued. Then in the 7th century, the Arabs conquered Persia.
Persia in the Middle Ages
In 642 the Arabs won a decisive victory over the Parthians at the Battle of Nahāvand. In 651 the last Sassanid ruler was killed and the Arab Conquest was complete.
The Ancient religion of Persia was Zoroastrianism, founded by Zoroaster about 1,500 BC. The Arabs introduced Islam, which gradually became the religion of the vast majority of the people. However, the Persians kept their culture alive while accepting the new religion. From the 8th to the 13th century, the arts flourished in Persia.
In the 13th century, Iran suffered terribly during invasions by the Mongols. They killed vast numbers of people. However Persian culture survived and gradually the Mongols were assimilated.
In 1383 Timur AKA Timurlane, a ruler born in what is now Uzbekistan invaded Persia and it became part of a huge empire in Central Asia. However, he died in 1405. His successors adopted Persian culture.
Modern Iran
Persian rule was restored in 1501 when Shah Ismail I took the city of Tabriz and declared himself Shah. By 1510 he ruled all of Persia. He founded the Safavid dynasty and made Shia Islam the religion of Persia. Under the Safavids, the arts flourished in Persia. In the reign of Abbas I, known as Abbas the Great (1588-1629) many great buildings were erected.
However, the Safavid Empire declined in the late 17th century and early 18th century. The Safavid dynasty ended in 1736.
In 1736 Nader Shah became the ruler of Persia. In 1739 he invaded the Moghul Empire. He captured Delhi, where his army carried out a terrible massacre. Nader Shah took a huge amount of loot, including gold, silver, and jewels. He also annexed the territory west of the River Indus. Nader Shah also fought the Ottoman Turks. However, his frequent wars cost vast sums of money and he was assassinated in 1747.
After his death, Iran went through a period of instability. However, stability in Persia was restored by Agha Mohammad Khan in 1794.
However, in the early 19th century Persia fought two wars with Russia, 1804-1813 and 1826-1828. After the second war, Persia was forced to cede land to Russia and pay a huge indemnity. In 1856-57 Persia fought a war with Britain. Persia was forced to give up all claim to Afghanistan.
In the late 19th century discontent and demands for reform grew in Persia. Many people demanded representative government. In 1906 the Shah granted a constitution and a parliament was elected.
Sadly, in 1917-1918 Persia was struck by famine. Meanwhile, in 1908 oil was discovered in Persia. Of course, the discovery of oil had a huge impact on Persia.
Then, in 1921 Reza Khan seized power in a coup. In 1925 he was crowned Reza Shah. He made strenuous efforts to modernize Persia. Reza Shah improved transport in the country. He also greatly expanded education. Tehran University was founded in 1934. In 1935 he banned women from wearing the veil. Also in 1935, Reza Shah asked other countries to use the name Iran instead of Persia. On the other hand, Reza Shah banned trade unions and political parties.
However, in 1941 the British and Russians occupied Iran. The British were afraid the Germans might take the oil wells in Iran. They also ferried supplies to Russia through the country. The Shah was deposed and replaced by his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. However, under British rule trade unions and political parties were allowed again. Foreign troops left Iran after the Second World War.
In 1951 Prime Minister Mossadeq nationalised the oil industry. In response, Britain and the USA engineered a coup in 1953 and Prime Minister Mossadeq was removed from power.
In 1963 the Shah announced reforms called the White Revolution. It included land reform and a literacy corps was created to help tackle illiteracy. Industry in Iran grew.
In 1963 women in Iran were given the right to vote. In 1967 they were given the right to petition for divorce. Industry in Iran grew.
However, the drive for modernization alienated many people and the Shah’s regime was repressive. Dissent was not tolerated but in the late 1970s protests grew and grew. On 8 September 1978, Iranian security forces fired on protestors in Tehran killing an estimated 100 people. Finally, in 1979 the Shah was overthrown. On 1 April 1979, Iran became an Islamic Republic. Ayatollah Khomeini became its leader. He remained the leader of Iran until he died in 1989.
In 1980 Iraq invaded Iran. The Iraq-Iran war lasted until 1988.
Today the economy of Iran is dominated by oil and gas. In 2025 the population of Iran was 83 million.
Last Revised 2025